Modern History

This section covers all the essential topics of modern history. Keep updating your knowledge and notes on these topics, and it will be sufficient for upsc.

India in the 18th Century

• Decline of Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire faced a significant decline due to internal conflicts, weak successors, and administrative inefficiencies. This period saw the rise of regional powers and increased foreign invasions. The decline set the stage for the emergence of new political entities in India.
• Emergence of Regional States: As the Mughal Empire weakened, regional states like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Nawabs of Bengal gained prominence. These states played crucial roles in the political landscape of 18th century India. They often engaged in conflicts with each other and with foreign invaders.
• Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali: Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali's multiple invasions in the mid-18th century further destabilized the region. These invasions led to massive plundering and weakened the already declining Mughal Empire. They also contributed to the rise of regional powers.
• Continuity and Change: Economic and Socio-cultural Perspective: The 18th century witnessed significant economic and socio-cultural changes. Traditional industries faced decline, while new trade patterns emerged. Social structures evolved, with increased influence of regional cultures and practices.

Advent of the Europeans

• The Need to Discover New Routes to India: European nations sought new trade routes to India to bypass the Ottoman Empire and gain direct access to spices and other valuable goods. This quest led to the Age of Exploration and the eventual arrival of Europeans in India.
• Arrival of Portuguese in India: The Portuguese, led by Vasco da Gama, were the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498. They established trading posts and forts along the western coast, marking the beginning of European colonialism in India.
• Arrival of Dutch in India: The Dutch East India Company arrived in India in the early 17th century. They focused on trade in spices, textiles, and other goods, establishing several trading posts and competing with the Portuguese.
• Arrival of the British in India: The British East India Company arrived in India in the early 17th century. They gradually expanded their influence through trade and military conquests, eventually becoming the dominant colonial power in India.
• Arrival of Danes in India: The Danish East India Company established trading posts in India in the early 17th century. Their presence was relatively minor compared to other European powers, but they contributed to the competitive colonial environment.
• Arrival of French in India: The French East India Company arrived in India in the 17th century. They established trading posts and engaged in conflicts with the British, particularly in southern India, as they vied for control over trade and territory.

Rise and Consolidation of British Power

• Factors of Success: The British success in India can be attributed to their superior military technology, strategic alliances, and effective administrative policies. They also exploited the political fragmentation and rivalries among Indian states.
• Anglo-French Rivalry: The British and French competed fiercely for dominance in India during the 18th century. This rivalry culminated in several conflicts, including the Carnatic Wars, which ultimately led to British supremacy in India.
• Acquisition of Bengal: The British East India Company gained control over Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This victory marked the beginning of British territorial expansion in India and provided significant economic resources.
• Anglo-Maratha Relations: The British engaged in a series of conflicts with the Maratha Empire, known as the Anglo-Maratha Wars. These wars resulted in the eventual defeat of the Marathas and the consolidation of British power in India.
• Anglo-Mysore Relations: The British fought four wars against the Kingdom of Mysore, led by rulers like Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. The Anglo-Mysore Wars ended with the British victory and the annexation of Mysore territories.
• Anglo-Sikh Relations: The British had a complex relationship with the Sikh Empire, marked by two Anglo-Sikh Wars. The British ultimately defeated the Sikhs and annexed Punjab, further expanding their control in India.
• British Policy of Subsidiary Alliance: Introduced by Lord Wellesley, this policy required Indian states to accept British troops and pay for their maintenance. It effectively made the states dependent on British support and control.
• Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse: This policy allowed the British to annex any princely state where the ruler died without a male heir. It led to the annexation of several states and increased British territory in India.
• British Policy towards Princely States: The British maintained a policy of indirect rule over princely states, allowing them autonomy in internal matters while controlling their foreign affairs and defense. This policy ensured British dominance without direct administration.
• British Power and Neighbouring Countries: The British extended their influence to neighboring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma through a combination of diplomacy and military intervention. These actions secured British interests and expanded their empire.

Economic and Administrative Policies under the British

• Stages of British Colonialism: British colonialism in India evolved through several stages, from early trade and commerce to full-scale political control and economic exploitation. Each stage had distinct characteristics and impacts on Indian society.
• Land Revenue Systems During British Rule: The British introduced various land revenue systems, including the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems. These systems aimed to maximize revenue but often led to the exploitation of peasants.
• De-Industrialization: British policies led to the decline of traditional Indian industries, such as textiles. The influx of British manufactured goods and the focus on raw material exports contributed to de-industrialization and economic hardship.
• Drain of Wealth: The British extracted significant wealth from India through taxation, trade, and exploitation of resources. This "drain of wealth" had a detrimental impact on the Indian economy and contributed to widespread poverty.
• Development of Modern Industries in India: Despite the negative impacts of colonialism, some modern industries, such as railways, telegraphs, and ports, were developed during British rule. These developments had long-term effects on India's infrastructure.
• Administrative Machinery: The British established a centralized administrative system in India, with a bureaucracy that implemented colonial policies. This system included the Indian Civil Service, which played a key role in governance.
• Introduction of Railway: The British introduced railways in India to facilitate the movement of goods and troops. The railway network expanded rapidly, transforming transportation and contributing to economic integration.

Socio-Religious Reform Movement

• Social Changes in Modern India: The 19th and early 20th centuries saw significant social changes in India, driven by reform movements and increased awareness of social issues. These changes included efforts to abolish practices like sati and child marriage.
• Causes of Social and Cultural Awakening: The social and cultural awakening in India was influenced by factors such as Western education, exposure to new ideas, and the efforts of reformers. This period saw a growing emphasis on rationalism and human rights.
• Early Phase (Before 19th Century): Early socio-religious movements focused on addressing social evils and promoting education. Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy played a crucial role in advocating for social change and modernization.
• Later Phase (After 19th Century): The later phase of socio-religious reform movements saw the emergence of organizations like the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj. These movements continued to push for social reforms and religious revival.
• Sikh Movements: Sikh reform movements aimed to purify Sikh practices and return to the teachings of the Gurus. The Singh Sabha movement was a significant effort in this direction, promoting education and religious reforms.
• Movements for Emancipation of Women: Reformers worked towards improving the status of women in Indian society. Efforts included advocating for women's education, widow remarriage, and the abolition of practices like purdah and child marriage.
• Islamic Reform Movements: Islamic reform movements, such as the Deoband and Aligarh movements, sought to reconcile Islamic traditions with modernity. These movements emphasized education and social reforms within the Muslim community.

Freedom Struggle in the 1920s and 1930s

Swaraj Party

Formed in 1923 by Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das, the Swaraj Party aimed to attain self-governance within the British Empire by entering legislative councils.

Other Political Parties and Movements

Various regional and national parties emerged, focusing on different aspects of the freedom struggle, including communal harmony and social reforms.

Nehru Report (1928)

Drafted by Motilal Nehru, this report proposed a dominion status for India within the British Commonwealth, but it was rejected by the British government.

Civil Disobedience Movement

Launched by Gandhi in 1930, this movement involved non-violent protests and boycotts against British laws and goods, significantly impacting British rule.

Gandhi's Harijan Programme

Gandhi's initiative aimed at eradicating untouchability and improving the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans (Dalits).

Provincial Elections (1937)

The elections under the Government of India Act 1935 led to the formation of Congress ministries in several provinces, marking a significant step towards self-governance.

Indian Working Class and National Movement

The working class played a crucial role in the national movement, organizing strikes and protests to demand better working conditions and independence from British rule.

Freedom Struggle in Princely States

All India States Peoples' Conference (AISPC)

Founded in 1927, the AISPC aimed to coordinate the efforts of the people in princely states to achieve democratic governance and integration with British India.

Indian National Congress and the Native States

The Congress worked to support the movements in princely states, advocating for their integration into a unified, independent India.

Freedom with Partition

Demand for Pakistan

The demand for a separate Muslim state of Pakistan was articulated by the All India Muslim League, leading to the eventual partition of India in 1947.

Second World War & its Impact on India

The war intensified the demand for independence, as India's resources were heavily utilized by the British, leading to widespread discontent.

Cripps Mission (1942)

The British government's attempt to secure Indian support for the war effort by promising post-war dominion status, which was rejected by Indian leaders.

Quit India Movement

Launched by Gandhi in 1942, this movement called for immediate British withdrawal from India, leading to mass protests and arrests.

Indian National Army (INA)

Led by Subhas Chandra Bose, the INA sought to overthrow British rule with Japanese support during World War II.

C.R. Formula (1944)

Proposed by C. Rajagopalachari, this formula aimed to resolve the Hindu-Muslim conflict by offering a framework for partition, which was not accepted by all parties.

Wavell Plan (14th June 1945)

Proposed by Viceroy Wavell, this plan aimed to form an interim government in India, but it failed due to disagreements between the Congress and the Muslim League.

General Elections in India (1945)

The elections resulted in a significant victory for the Congress, setting the stage for negotiations leading to independence.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

This plan proposed a federal structure for India, which was initially accepted but later led to further disagreements and the eventual partition.

Constituent Assembly and Direct Action Day

The Constituent Assembly was formed to draft the Indian Constitution, while Direct Action Day called by the Muslim League led to communal violence.

India Attains Independence

On August 15, 1947, India gained independence from British rule, leading to the creation of two separate nations, India and Pakistan.

Constitutional Developments during British Raj

Constitutional Developments During Rule of East India Company (1773-1857)

Key acts like the Regulating Act of 1773 and the Charter Acts laid the foundation for British administration in India.

Development of Self-Government in India

Gradual introduction of representative institutions, culminating in the Government of India Act 1935, which provided for provincial autonomy.

Important Developments during British Raj

Development of Education

Introduction of Western education through institutions like the universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and the spread of English language education.

Press in India

The press played a crucial role in the freedom struggle, with newspapers like The Hindu and The Times of India advocating for independence.

Labour and Factory Acts

Legislation aimed at improving working conditions, regulating working hours, and ensuring the welfare of industrial workers.

British Famine Policy

Criticized for its inadequacy, the British famine policy failed to prevent recurrent famines, leading to widespread suffering and mortality.

Governor Generals & Viceroys

Governors of Bengal

The early administrators who laid the groundwork for British rule in India, focusing on revenue collection and law and order.

Governor Generals of Bengal

Key figures who expanded British control and implemented significant administrative reforms.

Governor Generals of India

Oversaw the consolidation of British rule and implemented policies that shaped modern India.

Viceroys of India

The highest-ranking officials representing the British Crown, responsible for major decisions affecting the Indian subcontinent.

Consolidation & Reorganisation

The Colonial Legacy

The impact of British rule on India's political, economic, and social structures, which continued to influence post-independence India.

Integration of Princely States

The process of merging over 500 princely states into the Indian Union, led by Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon.

The Case of Colonial Enclaves

Resolution of issues related to small pockets of territory controlled by European powers like Portugal and France.

Reorganization of Indian States after Independence

Reorganization based on linguistic lines, leading to the creation of new states and altering India's political map.

Challenges to Consolidation

Issues like regionalism, linguistic diversity, and economic disparities posed challenges to national unity.

Emergence of Red Corridor

The rise of Naxalite-Maoist insurgency in certain regions, challenging the authority of the Indian state.

External Threats to Indian Consolidation

Border conflicts and wars with neighboring countries like Pakistan and China, impacting national security.

Significant Events and Developments

Bhoodan and Gramdan

Initiated by Vinoba Bhave, these movements aimed at land redistribution and promoting rural self-sufficiency.

Congress After 1947

The Indian National Congress played a pivotal role in shaping post-independence India, focusing on nation-building and socio-economic reforms.

Congress After 1964

Post-1964, the Congress faced internal challenges and leadership changes, impacting its political dominance and policies.

The Crisis of Democracy

India faced significant democratic challenges, including the Emergency period (1975-1977) which saw the suspension of civil liberties and political opposition.

Foreign Policy

India's foreign policy focused on non-alignment, maintaining strategic autonomy while fostering relations with both Western and Eastern blocs.

Economic Reconstruction

Post-independence economic policies aimed at self-reliance, industrialization, and agricultural development to rebuild the nation.

Scientific Developments

India made significant strides in science and technology, establishing institutions like ISRO and DRDO, and achieving milestones in space and nuclear technology.

Chipko Movement

A grassroots environmental movement in the 1970s, where villagers in Uttarakhand hugged trees to prevent deforestation.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

A social movement against the construction of large dams on the Narmada River, highlighting issues of displacement and environmental impact.

Silent Valley Protest

A successful environmental campaign in Kerala during the 1970s and 1980s to save the Silent Valley forest from being flooded by a hydroelectric project.

Jungle Bachao Andolan

Initiated in the 1980s, this movement aimed to protect forests and the rights of indigenous communities in Bihar and Jharkhand.

The Mandal Commission Report

Published in 1980, it recommended reservations for OBCs in government jobs and educational institutions to address social and educational backwardness.

Ram Janmabhoomi Movement (Ayodhya issue) and Rise of Majoritarian Politics

The movement to build a temple in Ayodhya,Kashi and Mathura led to significant political and communal tensions in 1990.

Ayodhya: Birthplace of Lord Ram. The Babri Masjid, built in the 16th century, was constructed on the ruins of a Hindu temple. This led to a long-standing dispute culminating in the demolition of the mosque in 1992.

Mathura: Considered the birthplace of Lord Krishna. The Krishna Janmabhoomi temple is adjacent to the Shahi Idgah mosque, which was built after demolishing a temple.

Kashi (Varanasi): Home to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The Gyanvapi mosque, located next to the temple, is also a point of contention, which was built over a demolished temple.

These matters had a significant impact on Indian politics during the 1990s.

In 1990, the claims by Hindus regarding land that once had a temple but was now occupied by a mosque were dismissed, taking into account the circumstances in Kashi and Mathura at that time. To ensure the protection of minorities and there place of worship government came with places of worship act 1991.

Places of Worship Act, 1991

The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 was enacted by the Indian Parliament to maintain the religious character of places of worship as they existed on August 15, 1947. This act was introduced by the then government led by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao in response to communal violence that happened in 1990.

Key Provisions

• Prohibition of Conversion: The act prohibits the conversion of any place of worship from one religion to another. This includes any alteration or change in the religious character of the place.
• Maintenance of Religious Character: The act ensures that the religious character of a place of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947, remains unchanged.
• Bar of Jurisdiction: The act bars courts from entertaining any legal proceedings regarding the conversion of religious places that existed on August 15, 1947.

Exceptions

The act does not apply to the Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid dispute, which was already under litigation at the time of the act's enactment.

Significance

This legislation was significant in providing legal protection to minorities and their places of worship and aimed to prevent communal tensions by maintaining the status quo of their religious sites as they were at the time of India's independence.