English Week 1 to 12 summary

📚

Vowels and Consonants

English 1 playlist

English 2 playlist

Vowels

Vowels are speech sounds produced without any significant constriction or blockage of airflow in the vocal tract. The primary vowels in English are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y.

Consonants

Consonants are speech sounds produced with some degree of constriction or closure at one or more points along the vocal tract. The consonants in English include b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z.

Sounding Vowels and Consonants

Sounding vowels are produced with an open vocal tract, allowing the air to flow freely. Examples include the sounds in "cat" (/æ/), "see" (/iː/), and "moon" (/uː/).

Sounding consonants involve some form of obstruction in the vocal tract. For example, the sound /b/ in "bat" involves closing the lips, while /t/ in "top" involves the tongue touching the roof of the mouth.

Monophthongs and Diphthongs

Monophthongs are single, pure vowel sounds. Examples include the vowel sounds in "cat" (/æ/), "bed" (/e/), and "dog" (/ɒ/).

Diphthongs are complex vowel sounds that begin with one vowel sound and glide into another within the same syllable. Examples include the sounds in "coin" (/ɔɪ/) and "loud" (/aʊ/).

If you're asked to identify words in exam, keep pronouncing them and try to relate them to something familiar. This can help you remember and understand them better. I’ve added a few. You should also practice more and check previous year questions (PYQ) for better preparation.

The 44 Sounds in English

Vowel Sounds (20)

• /iː/ as in "see"
• /ɪ/ as in "sit"
• /e/ as in "bed"
• /æ/ as in "cat"
• /ɑː/ as in "car"
• /ɒ/ as in "dog"
• /ɔː/ as in "law"
• /ʊ/ as in "put"
• /uː/ as in "blue"
• /ʌ/ as in "cup"
• /ɜː/ as in "bird"
• /ə/ as in "sofa"
• /eɪ/ as in "say"
• /aɪ/ as in "my"
• /ɔɪ/ as in "boy"
• /aʊ/ as in "now"
• /əʊ/ as in "go"
• /ɪə/ as in "near"
• /eə/ as in "hair"
• /ʊə/ as in "tour"

Consonant Sounds (24)

• /p/ as in "pen"
• /b/ as in "bat"
• /t/ as in "top"
• /d/ as in "dog"
• /k/ as in "cat"
• /g/ as in "go"
• /tʃ/ as in "chin"
• /dʒ/ as in "jam"
• /f/ as in "fish"
• /v/ as in "van"
• /θ/ as in "think"
• /ð/ as in "this"
• /s/ as in "see"
• /z/ as in "zoo"
• /ʃ/ as in "she"
• /ʒ/ as in "measure"
• /h/ as in "hat"
• /m/ as in "man"
• /n/ as in "no"
• /ŋ/ as in "sing"
• /l/ as in "leg"
• /r/ as in "red"
• /j/ as in "yes"
• /w/ as in "wet"

Examples of Diphthongs

/eɪ/

• day
• play
• say
• lay
• stay
• break
• rain
• eight
• weight
• great

/aɪ/

• my
• sky
• buy
• cry
• tie
• light
• night
• high
• fly
• sight

/ɔɪ/

• boy
• toy
• joy
• coin
• join
• noise
• boil
• foil
• soil
• point

/aʊ/

• now
• how
• cow
• town
• brown
• down
• out
• shout
• about
• mouth

/əʊ/

• go
• no
• so
• home
• boat
• coat
• road
• show
• slow
• throw

/ɪə/

• near
• fear
• beer
• clear
• dear
• ear
• year
• cheer
• here
• tear

/eə/

• air
• care
• bear
• hair
• pair
• fair
• wear
• share
• there
• where

/ʊə/

• tour
• poor
• sure
• cure
• pure
• endure
• secure
• mature
• obscure
• insure

Keep a list of dipthongs

Articulator and Sound Effects

Example of an Articulator

An articulator is a part of the vocal tract that helps shape the sounds of speech. For instance, the tongue is a key articulator. It can move to different positions in the mouth to produce various sounds. Here are a few examples:

• Tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge to produce sounds like [t] and [d].
• Back of the tongue touching the soft palate (velum) to produce sounds like [k] and [g].
• Tongue tip between the teeth to produce sounds like [θ] (as in "think") and [ð] (as in "this").

Articulators

• Tongue:

  • /t/ as in "top"
  • /d/ as in "dog"
  • /n/ as in "no"
  • /l/ as in "love"
  • /r/ as in "red"
• Lips:

  • /p/ as in "pat"
  • /b/ as in "bat"
  • /m/ as in "mat"
  • /w/ as in "wet"
  • /f/ as in "fun"
• Teeth:

  • /f/ as in "fish"
  • /v/ as in "van"
  • /θ/ as in "think"
  • /ð/ as in "this"
  • /s/ as in "see"
• Alveolar Ridge:

  • /s/ as in "sun"
  • /z/ as in "zoo"
  • /t/ as in "top"
  • /d/ as in "dog"
  • /n/ as in "no"
• Velum (Soft Palate):

  • /k/ as in "cat"
  • /g/ as in "go"
  • /ŋ/ as in "sing"
  • /x/ as in "Bach" (in German)
  • /ɣ/ as in "agua" (in Spanish)

Glides

• /j/:

  • as in "yes"
  • as in "yellow"
  • as in "yarn"
  • as in "yoga"
  • as in "youth"
• /w/:

  • as in "we"
  • as in "water"
  • as in "wind"
  • as in "wonder"
  • as in "wild"
• /ɥ/:

  • as in French "huit" (eight)
  • as in French "huile" (oil)
  • as in French "huître" (oyster)
  • as in French "huée" (booing)
  • as in French "huis" (door)
• /ʍ/:

  • as in "which" (in some dialects)
  • as in "whale" (in some dialects)
  • as in "whip" (in some dialects)
  • as in "whisper" (in some dialects)
  • as in "whirl" (in some dialects)
• /ɰ/:

  • as in Japanese "washi" (eagle)
  • as in Japanese "wakarimasu" (understand)
  • as in Japanese "wakarimashita" (understood)
  • as in Japanese "wakarimasen" (don't understand)
  • as in Japanese "wakarimashou" (let's understand)

Parts of Speech

1. Noun

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can be classified into several types:

• Common Nouns: General names for things (e.g., city, dog, book).
• Proper Nouns: Specific names for things (e.g., New York, Rover, Harry Potter).
• Abstract Nouns: Names for ideas or concepts (e.g., happiness, freedom, love).
• Concrete Nouns: Names for physical objects (e.g., apple, car, house).

Examples: The cat sat on the mat. Paris is a beautiful city.

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun to avoid repetition. Pronouns can be classified into several types:

• Personal Pronouns: Refer to specific people or things (e.g., he, she, it, they).
• Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership (e.g., his, her, their).
• Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject (e.g., myself, yourself).
• Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things (e.g., this, that, these, those).

Examples: She loves her dog. This is my book.

3. Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives can describe qualities, quantities, or states of being:

• Descriptive Adjectives: Describe qualities (e.g., happy, blue, large).
• Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate quantity (e.g., some, many, few).
• Demonstrative Adjectives: Point to specific items (e.g., this, that, these, those).

Examples: The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. She has three apples.

4. Verb

A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. Verbs can be classified into several types:

• Action Verbs: Indicate physical or mental actions (e.g., run, think, eat).
• Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a subject complement (e.g., is, seem, become).
• Auxiliary Verbs: Help the main verb to form tenses, moods, or voices (e.g., have, do, will).

Examples: She runs every morning. He is a doctor.

5. Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs often answer questions like how, when, where, and to what extent:

• Manner Adverbs: Describe how an action is performed (e.g., quickly, slowly).
• Time Adverbs: Indicate when an action occurs (e.g., now, later, yesterday).
• Place Adverbs: Indicate where an action occurs (e.g., here, there, everywhere).

Examples: She sings beautifully. He arrived early.

6. Preposition

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence. Prepositions often indicate location, direction, time, or manner:

• Location Prepositions: Indicate where something is (e.g., in, on, at).
• Direction Prepositions: Indicate where something is going (e.g., to, towards, into).
• Time Prepositions: Indicate when something happens (e.g., before, after, during).

Examples: The book is on the table. She arrived after dinner.

7. Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions can be classified into several types:

• Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance (e.g., and, but, or).
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect a dependent clause to an independent clause (e.g., because, although, if).
• Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to connect equal elements (e.g., either...or, neither...nor).

Examples: I want to go, but I am too tired. She stayed home because she was sick.

8. Interjection

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or surprise. Interjections are often followed by an exclamation mark:

• Examples: Wow!, Oh!, Ouch!

Examples: Wow! That was amazing. Ouch! That hurt.

Tense Summary

Click on tense.

->Present Simple

Used for habitual actions, general truths, and fixed arrangements.

Form: Subject + base form of the verb (add 's' or 'es' for third person singular).

Example: She reads books every day.

Usage: To describe routines, facts, and scheduled events.

->Present Continuous

Used for actions happening now or around the current time.

Form: Subject + am/is/are + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She is reading a book right now.

Usage: To describe ongoing actions or temporary situations.

->Present Perfect

Used for actions that happened at an unspecified time or that have relevance to the present.

Form: Subject + has/have + past participle (verb + ed/en).

Example: She has read that book.

Usage: To describe experiences, changes, or situations that continue to the present.

->Present Perfect Continuous

Used for actions that started in the past and are still continuing or have recently stopped.

Form: Subject + has/have + been + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She has been reading for two hours.

Usage: To emphasize the duration of an activity that began in the past and continues to the present.

->Past Simple

Used for actions that happened at a specific time in the past.

Form: Subject + past form of the verb (verb + ed for regular verbs).

Example: She read that book yesterday.

Usage: To describe completed actions or events in the past.

->Past Continuous

Used for actions that were in progress at a specific time in the past.

Form: Subject + was/were + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She was reading when I called her.

Usage: To describe interrupted actions or background activities in the past.

->Past Perfect

Used for actions that were completed before another action in the past.

Form: Subject + had + past participle (verb + ed/en).

Example: She had read the book before the class started.

Usage: To show the sequence of events in the past.

->Past Perfect Continuous

Used for actions that were ongoing in the past up until another action in the past.

Form: Subject + had + been + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She had been reading for an hour when I arrived.

Usage: To emphasize the duration of an activity that was ongoing in the past.

->Future Simple

Used for actions that will happen in the future.

Form: Subject + will + base form of the verb.

Example: She will read that book tomorrow.

Usage: To describe future actions or events.

->Future Continuous

Used for actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future.

Form: Subject + will + be + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She will be reading at 8 PM.

Usage: To describe ongoing future actions or events.

->Future Perfect

Used for actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future.

Form: Subject + will + have + past participle (verb + ed/en).

Example: She will have read the book by tomorrow.

Usage: To describe actions that will be finished before a certain future time.

->Future Perfect Continuous

Used for actions that will be ongoing up until a specific time in the future.

Form: Subject + will + have + been + present participle (verb + ing).

Example: She will have been reading for two hours by the time you arrive.

Usage: To emphasize the duration of an activity that will be ongoing in the future.

English Language Concepts

Aspiration

Aspiration refers to the burst of air that follows the release of a consonant sound. In English, this is most noticeable with the voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, and /k/ when they occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable. For example, the /p/ in "pat" is aspirated, producing a noticeable puff of air, whereas the /p/ in "spat" is not.

Word Stress and Syllabification

Word Stress

Word stress refers to the emphasis placed on a particular syllable within a word. This emphasis can change the meaning of the word or make it easier to understand. In English, stressed syllables are typically louder, longer, and have a higher pitch than unstressed syllables. For example, in the word "record" (noun), the stress is on the first syllable: RE-cord. As a verb, the stress shifts to the second syllable: re-CORD.

Syllabification

Syllabification is the division of words into syllables. A syllable is a unit of pronunciation that typically contains a vowel sound. For example, the word "banana" is divided into three syllables: ba-na-na. Syllabification helps in understanding the rhythm and pronunciation of words.

Common Errors in English Grammar

Here are some common errors in English grammar and how to avoid them:

• Your vs. You're: "Your" is a possessive pronoun (e.g., "Your book is on the table"). "You're" is a contraction of "you are" (e.g., "You're going to love this movie").
• Its vs. It's: "Its" is a possessive pronoun (e.g., "The cat licked its paw"). "It's" is a contraction of "it is" (e.g., "It's raining outside").
• There vs. Their vs. They're: "There" refers to a place (e.g., "Put the book over there"). "Their" is a possessive pronoun (e.g., "Their house is big"). "They're" is a contraction of "they are" (e.g., "They're coming to the party").
• Then vs. Than: "Then" refers to time (e.g., "We went to the store, and then we went home"). "Than" is used for comparisons (e.g., "She is taller than her brother").
• Effect vs. Affect: "Effect" is a noun meaning "a result" (e.g., "The effect of the new law was immediate"). "Affect" is a verb meaning "to influence" (e.g., "The weather can affect your mood").

Common Idioms and Phrases

• A piece of cake: Something very easy to do.
• Break the ice: To initiate conversation in a social setting.
• Costs an arm and a leg: Very expensive.
• Hit the nail on the head: To be exactly right about something.
• Let the cat out of the bag: To reveal a secret.

Synonyms and Antonyms

Synonyms

• Happy: Joyful, Content, Cheerful
• Fast: Quick, Speedy, Rapid
• Smart: Intelligent, Clever, Bright
• Big: Large, Huge, Enormous
• Beautiful: Attractive, Pretty, Lovely

Antonyms

• Happy: Sad, Unhappy, Miserable
• Fast: Slow, Sluggish, Unhurried
• Smart: Dumb, Stupid, Unintelligent
• Big: Small, Tiny, Little
• Beautiful: Ugly, Unattractive, Plain

Solve previous year paper.